Teacher Educational Decision Making for Children With Specific Language Impairment
Publication: American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology
Volume 31, Number 3
Pages 1221-1243
Abstract
Purpose:
Children with specific language impairment (SLI) are underidentified, despite a robust literature on their language abilities and a clinical grammar marker. Adlof and Hogan (2019) call for school systems to assess oral language and provide supports through response to intervention (RTI), with the aim of identifying and supporting children with SLI and other language impairments. However, it is unknown how teachers make educational decisions for children with SLI.
Method:
A web-based survey was distributed to public school teachers nationwide (N = 304). In this observational study, teachers read six vignettes featuring profiles of children systematically varying in the linguistic characteristics relevant to SLI (e.g., difficulty with verb tense) and responded to items on the educational decisions that they would make in the absence of workplace constraints.
Results:
Teachers were likely to identify that the children in the vignettes needed language for classroom success and to indicate that they would provide in-class intervention. However, teachers were unlikely to recommend speech-language pathology services. These outcomes were mostly consistent across all child characteristics and teacher characteristics.
Conclusions:
Findings show that teachers were sensitive to the language-based needs of children with SLI and elected to provide in-class intervention. Future work is needed to understand how workplace characteristics, including opportunities for interprofessional collaboration, and the heterogeneity of children with SLI, inform teacher educational decision making.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
References
Adlof, S. M., & Hogan, T. P. (2019). If we don't look, we won't see: Measuring language development to inform literacy instruction. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 6(2), 210–217.
Adlof, S. M., & Perfetti, C. A. (2013). Individual differences in word learning and reading ability. In A. Stone, B. Ehren, E. Silliman, & G. Wallach (Eds.), Handbook of language and literacy development and disorders (2nd ed., pp. 246–264). Guilford.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.).
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.).
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.). Strategic pathway to excellence. https://www.asha.org/about/strategic-pathway/
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2016). Scope of practice in speech-language pathology. http://www.asha.org/policy
Ash, A. C., & Redmond, S. M. (2014). Using finiteness as a clinical marker to identify language impairment. SIG 1 Perspectives on Language Learning and Education, 21(4), 148–158.
Bastedo, M. N., Bowman, N. A., Glasener, K. M., & Kelly, J. L. (2018). What are we talking about when we talk about holistic review? Selective college admissions and its effects on low-SES students. The Journal of Higher Education, 89(5), 782–805.
Berry, A. B., Petrin, R. A., Gravelle, M. L., & Farmer, T. W. (2011). Issues in special education teacher recruitment, retention, and professional development: Considerations in supporting rural teachers. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 30(4), 3–11.
Bos, C., Mather, N., Dickson, S., Podhajski, B., & Chard, D. (2001). Perceptions and knowledge of preservice and inservice educators about early reading instruction. Annals of Dyslexia, 51(1), 97–120.
Catts, H. W., Fey, M. E., Tomblin, J. B., & Zhang, X. (2002). A longitudinal investigation of reading outcomes in children with language impairments. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 45(6), 1142–1157.
Christopulos, T. T., & Kean, J. (2020). General education teachers' contribution to the identification of children with language disorders. Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups, 5(4), 770–777.
Clark, S. K., Helfrich, S. R., & Hatch, L. (2017). Examining preservice teacher content and pedagogical content knowledge needed to teach reading in elementary school. Journal of Research in Reading, 40(3), 219–232.
Connor, C. M., Son, S.-H., Hindman, A. H., & Morrison, F. J. (2005). Teacher qualifications, classroom practices, family characteristics, and preschool experience: Complex effects on first graders' vocabulary and early reading outcomes. Journal of School Psychology, 43(4), 343–375.
Croninger, R. G., Rice, J. K., Rathbun, A., & Nishio, M. (2007). Teacher qualifications and early learning: Effects of certification, degree, and experience on first-grade student achievement. Economics of Education Review, 26(3), 312–324.
Cunningham, A. E., Perry, K. E., Stanovich, K. E., & Stanovich, P. J. (2004). Disciplinary knowledge of K-3 teachers and their knowledge calibration in the domain of early literacy. Annals of Dyslexia, 54(1), 139–167.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Teacher quality and student achievement. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 8(1), 1–44.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2007). Race, inequality and educational accountability: The irony of ‘No Child Left Behind’. Race Ethnicity and Education, 10(3), 245–260.
De Brey, C., Snyder, T. D., Zhang, A., & Dillow, S. A. (2021). Digest of Education Statistics 2019. NCES 2021–009. In National Center for Education Statistics. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED611019.pdf
DeThorne, L. S., & Watkins, R. V. (2001). Listeners' perceptions of language use in children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 32(3), 142–148.
Dresselhaus, T. R., Peabody, J. W., Luck, J., & Bertenthal, D. (2004). An evaluation of vignettes for predicting variation in the quality of preventive care. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 19(10), 1013–1018.
Egyed, C. J., & Short, R. J. (2006). Teacher self-efficacy, burnout, experience and decision to refer a disruptive student. School Psychology International, 27(4), 462–474.
Ehren, B. J., & Nelson, N. W. (2005). The responsiveness to intervention approach and language impairment. Topics in Language Disorders, 25(2), 120–131.
Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. S. (2006). Introduction to response to intervention: What, why, and how valid is it? Reading Research Quarterly, 41(1), 93–99.
Graner, P. S., Faggella-Luby, M. N., & Fritschmann, N. S. (2005). An overview of responsiveness to Intervention. Topics in Language Disorders, 25(2), 93–105.
Gray, S., Plante, E., Vance, R., & Henrichsen, M. (1999). The diagnostic accuracy of four vocabulary tests administered to preschool-age children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 30(2), 196–206.
Hadley, P. A., & Rice, M. L. (1991). Conversational responsiveness of speech-and language-impaired preschoolers. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 34(6), 1308–1317.
Hadley, P. A., Wilcox, K. A., & Rice, M. L. (1994). Talking at school: Teacher expectations in preschool and kindergarten. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 9(1), 111–129.
Hains, A. H., Fowler, S. A., Schwartz, I. S., Kottwitz, E., & Rosenkoetter, S. (1989). A comparison of preschool and kindergarten teacher expectations for school readiness. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 4(1), 75–88.
Hollo, A., Wehby, J. H., & Oliver, R. M. (2014). Unidentified language deficits in children with emotional and behavioral disorders: A meta-analysis. Exceptional Children, 80(2), 169–186.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq. (2004). https://sites.ed.gov/idea/statute-chapter-33/subchapter-i/1400
Jessup, B., Ward, E., Cahill, L., & Keating, D. (2008). Teacher identification of speech and language impairment in kindergarten students using the Kindergarten Development Check. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 10(6), 449–459.
Joshi, R. M., Binks, E., Hougen, M., Dahlgren, M. E., Ocker-Dean, E., & Smith, D. L. (2009). Why elementary teachers might be inadequately prepared to teach reading. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(5), 392–402.
Kane, T. J., Rockoff, J. E., & Staiger, D. O. (2008). What does certification tell us about teacher effectiveness? Evidence from New York City. Economics of Education Review, 27(6), 615–631.
Konstantopoulos, S., & Chung, V. (2009). What are the long-term effects of small classes on the achievement gap? Evidence from the lasting benefits study. American Journal of Education, 116(1), 125–154.
Leonard, L. B. (2014). Children with specific language impairment (2nd ed.). MIT press.
Mather, N., Bos, C., & Babur, N. (2001). Perceptions and knowledge of preservice and inservice teachers about early literacy instruction. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34(5), 472–482.
McNeilly, L. (2018). Why we need to practice at the top of the license. The ASHA Leader, 23(2), 10–11.
Moats, L. C. (1994). The missing foundation in teacher education: Knowledge of the structure of spoken and written language. Annals of Dyslexia, 44(1), 81–102.
Moldavsky, M., Gorenewald, C., Owen, V., & Sayal, K. (2013). Teachers' recognition of children with ADHD: Role of subtype and gender. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 18(1), 18–23.
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. (2019). Specific Language Impairment (NIH Publication No. 11–7751). National Institutes of Health. https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/specific-language-impairment#1
Norbury, C. F., Gooch, D., Wray, C., Baird, G., Charman, T., Simonoff, E., Vamvakas, G., & Pickles, A. (2016). The impact of nonverbal ability on prevalence and clinical presentation of language disorder: Evidence from a population study. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 57(11), 1247–1257.
Nungesser, N. R., & Watkins, R. V. (2005). Preschool teachers' perceptions and reactions to challenging classroom Behavior. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 36(2), 139–151.
Peabody, J. W., Luck, J., Glassman, P., Dresselhaus, T. R., & Lee, M. (2000). Comparison of vignettes, standardized patients, and chart Abstraction. JAMA, 283(13), 1715–1722.
Perry, L. B., & McConney, A. (2010). Does the SES of the school matter? An examination of socioeconomic status and student achievement using PISA 2003. Teachers College Record, 112(4), 1137–1162.
Petersen, I. T., Bates, J. E., D'Onofrio, B. M., Coyne, C. A., Lansford, J. E., Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., & Van Hulle, C. A. (2013). Language ability predicts the development of behavior problems in children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122(2), 542–557.
Piasta, S. B., Connor, C. M., Fishman, B. J., & Morrison, F. J. (2009). Teachers' knowledge of literacy concepts, classroom practices, and student reading growth. Scientific Studies of Reading, 13(3), 224–248.
Politzer-Ahles, S., Girolamo, T., & Ghali, S. (2020). Preliminary evidence of linguistic bias in academic reviewing. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 47, 100895.
Redmond, S. M. (2011). Peer victimization among students with specific language impairment, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and typical development. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 42(4), 520–535.
Redmond, S. M., Ash, A. C., & Hogan, T. P. (2015). Consequences of co-occurring attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder on children's language impairments. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 46(2), 68–80.
Redmond, S. M., Thompson, H. L., & Goldstein, S. (2011). Psycholinguistic profiling differentiates specific language impairment from typical development and from attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 54(1), 99–117.
Rice, M. L., Buhr, J. C., & Nemeth, M. (1990). Fast mapping word-learning abilities of language-delayed preschoolers. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 55(1), 33–42.
Rice, M. L., Hadley, P. A., & Alexander, A. L. (1993). Social biases toward children with speech and language impairments: A correlative causal model of language limitations. Applied Psycholinguistics, 14(4), 445–471.
Rice, M. L., & Hoffman, L. (2015). Predicting vocabulary growth in children with and without specific language impairment: A longitudinal study from 2; 6 to 21 years of age. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 58(2), 345–359.
Rice, M. L., Redmond, S. M., & Hoffman, L. (2006). Mean length of utterance in children with specific language impairment and in younger control children shows concurrent validity and stable and parallel growth trajectories. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 49(4), 793–808.
Rice, M. L., Sell, M. A., & Hadley, P. A. (1991). Social interactions of speech, and language-impaired children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 34(6), 1299–1307.
Rice, M. L., Smolik, F., Perpich, D., Thompson, T., Rytting, N., & Blossom, M. (2010). Mean length of utterance levels in 6-month intervals for children 3 to 9 years with and without language impairments. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 53(2), 333–349.
Rice, M. L., Tomblin, J. B., Hoffman, L., Richman, W. A., & Marquis, J. (2004). Grammatical tense deficits in children with SLI and nonspecific language Impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47(4), 816–834.
Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (1996). Toward tense as a clinical marker of specific language impairment in English-speaking children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 39(6), 1239–1257.
Rice, M. L., Wexler, K., & Hershberger, S. (1998). Tense over Time. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41(6), 1412–1431.
Sciutto, M. J., Terjesen, M. D., & Frank, A. S. B. (2000). Teachers' knowledge and misperceptions of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychology in the Schools, 37(2), 115–122.
Selin, C. M., Rice, M. L., Girolamo, T., & Wang, C. J. (2019). Speech-language pathologists' clinical decision-making for children with specific language impairment, 50(2), 283–307.
Shaughnessy, A., & Sanger, D. (2005). Kindergarten teachers' perceptions of language and literacy development, speech—language pathologists, and language interventions. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 26(2), 67–84.
Spear-Swerling, L., Brucker, P. O., & Alfano, M. P. (2005). Teachers' literacy-related knowledge and self-perceptions in relation to preparation and experience. Annals of Dyslexia, 55(2), 266–296.
Spencer, E. J., Schuele, C. M., Guillot, K. M., & Lee, M. W. (2008). Phonemic awareness skill of speech-language pathologists and other educators. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 39(4), 512–520. (2008/07-0080)
Tomblin, J. B. (2008). Validating diagnostic standards for specific language impairment using adolescent outcomes. In C. F. Norbury, J. B. Tomblin, & D. V. M. Bishop (Eds.), Understanding developmental language disorders: From theory to practice (pp. 93–114). Psychology Press.
Tomblin, J. B. (2014). Educational and psychosocial outcomes of language impairment in kindergarten. In J. B. Tomblin & M. A. Nippold (Eds.), Understanding individual differences in language development across the school years (pp. 166–203). Psychology Press.
Tomblin, J. B., Records, N. L., Buckwalter, P., Zhang, X., Smith, E., & O'Brien, M. (1997). Prevalence of specific language impairment in kindergarten children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 40(6), 1245–1260.
Tomblin, J. B., Records, N. L., & Zhang, X. (1996). A system for the diagnosis of specific language impairment in kindergarten children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 39(6), 1284–1294.
Watkins, R. V., Rice, M. L., & Moltz, C. C. (1993). Verb use by language-impaired and normally developing children. First Language, 13(37), 133–143.
Westling, D. L. (2010). Teachers and challenging Behavior. Remedial and Special Education, 31(1), 48–63.
Zhang, X., & Tomblin, J. B. (2000). The association of intervention receipt with speech-language profiles and social-demographic variables. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 9(4), 345–357.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology
Volume 31 • Number 3 • May 2022
Pages: 1221-1243
PubMed: 35235411
Copyright
Copyright © 2022 American Speech-Language-Hearing Association.
History
- Received: Nov 27, 2020
- Revised: May 27, 2021
- Accepted: Dec 13, 2021
- Published online: Mar 2, 2022
- Published in issue: May 10, 2022
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Article Metrics
View all metricsCitations
Download article citation data for:
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
For more information or tips please see 'Downloading to a citation manager' in the Help menu.
Citing Literature
- Catherine Corr, Carlomagno C. Panlilio, Casey Mullins, Samantha Ellner, Jonathan Bystrynski, Mia Chudzik, Understanding Factors that Predict Referral for Special Education Evaluation for Services by School Entry for Young Children with a History of Maltreatment, Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 10.1177/02711214251330843, (2025).
- María Dolón-Poza, Ana-Marta Gabaldón-Pérez, Santiago Berrezueta-Guzman, David López Gracia, María-Luisa Martín-Ruiz, Iván Pau De La Cruz, Enhancing Early Language Disorder Detection in Preschools: Evaluation and Future Directions for the Gades Platform, JMIR Human Factors, 10.2196/60424, 12, (e60424), (2025).
- Tim DeLuca, Katharine M. Radville, Danika L. Pfeiffer, Tiffany Hogan, Defining Developmental Language Disorder and Dyslexia in Schools: A Mixed-Methods Analysis, Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 10.1044/2024_JSLHR-24-00202, 68, 2, (618-635), (2025).
- Karla K. McGregor, Nancy Ohlmann, Nichole Eden, Tim Arbisi-Kelm, Alys Young, Abilities and Disabilities Among Children With Developmental Language Disorder, Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 10.1044/2023_LSHSS-22-00070, 54, 3, (927-951), (2023).
- Tyler T. Christopulos, Sean M. Redmond, Positive Predictive Values Associated With Adapting the Redmond Sentence Recall Measure Into a Kindergarten Screener for Developmental Language Disorder, Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 10.1044/2022_LSHSS-22-00048, 54, 2, (636-647), (2023).
- Wendy C. Georgan, Lisa M. D. Archibald, Tiffany P. Hogan, Speech/Language Impairment or Specific Learning Disability? Examining the Usage of Educational Categories, Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 10.1044/2022_JSLHR-21-00636, 66, 2, (656-667), (2023).
View Options
Sign In Options
ASHA member? If so, log in with your ASHA website credentials for full access.
Member Login