Emotional Regulation and Its Influence on the Experience of Stuttering Across the Life Span
Publication: Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research
Volume 65, Number 7
Pages 2412-2430
Abstract
Purpose:
This study evaluated the relationship between emotional regulation (ER) and adverse impact related to stuttering across the developmental spectrum, in preschool and school-age children, adolescents, and adults who stutter. An additional aim examined how these variables relate to the ways that individuals approach speaking (i.e., their agreement on whether their goal is to speak fluently).
Method:
Participants were the parents of 60 preschoolers and younger school-age children (ages 3–9 years), 95 school-age children and adolescents who stutter (ages 7–18 years), and 180 adults who stutter (ages 18–81 years). All participants completed surveys with age-appropriate measures examining ER and the adverse impact of stuttering. Older children and adults who stutter also answered questions regarding their goals when speaking. Multiple regression and ordinal logistic regression were used to examine relationships among ER, adverse impact related to stuttering, and goal when speaking.
Results:
In preschool children, adverse impact was significantly predicted by a parent-reported measure of ER skills; in school-age children and adults, adverse impact was significantly predicted by measures of the ER strategies cognitive reappraisal (CR) and expressive suppression. Less frequent use of CR by adults was significantly associated with an increased likelihood of having “not stuttering” as a goal when speaking. Differences in the significance and magnitude of these relationships were found across the life span.
Discussion:
For both children and adults who stutter, ER is a significant factor related to the adverse impact of stuttering; the relationship between ER and adverse impact may change over development. Accounting for individual differences in ER can improve understanding of why a person copes with stuttering in the ways they do, and this has notable implications for individualizing intervention for both children and adults who stutter.
Supplemental Material:
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
References
Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(2), 217–237.
Allison, P. D. (1999). Logistic regression using the SAS system: Theory and application. SAS Institute.
Alm, P. A. (2004). Stuttering, emotions, and heart rate during anticipatory anxiety: A critical review. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 29(2), 123–133.
Anderson, J. D., Pellowski, M. W., Conture, E. G., & Kelly, E. M. (2003). Temperamental characteristics of young children who stutter. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46(5), 1221–1233.
Arnold, H. S., Conture, E. G., Key, A. P. F., & Walden, T. (2011). Emotional reactivity, regulation and childhood stuttering: A behavioral and electrophysiological study. Journal of Communication Disorders, 44(3), 276–293.
Atherton, O. E., Lawson, K. M., & Robins, R. W. (2020). The development of effortful control from late childhood to young adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(2), 417–456.
Barrett, L., Oschner, K., & Gross, J. (2007). On the automaticity of emotion. In J. Bargh (Ed.), Social psychology and the unconscious: The automaticity of higher mental processes (pp. 173–217). Psychology Press.
Barry, D. (2017). Do not use averages with Likert scale data. Bookdown. https://bookdown.org/Rmadillo/likert/
Bartlett, J. W., Carpenter, J. R., Tilling, K., & Vansteelandt, S. (2014). Improving upon the efficiency of complete case analysis when covariates are MNAR. Biostatistics, 15(4), 719–730.
Beilby, J. M., Byrnes, M. L., & Yaruss, J. S. (2012). Acceptance and commitment therapy for adults who stutter: Psychosocial adjustment and speech fluency. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 37(4), 289–299.
Blood, G. W. (1995). A behavioral-cognitive therapy program for adults who stutter: Computers and counseling. Journal of Communication Disorders, 28(2), 165–180.
Boyle, M. P. (2011). Mindfulness training in stuttering therapy: A tutorial for speech-language pathologists. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 36(2), 122–129.
Brundage, S. B., Graap, K., Gibbons, K. F., Ferrer, M., & Brooks, J. (2006). Frequency of stuttering during challenging and supportive virtual reality job interviews. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 31(4), 325–339.
Cheasman, C. (2013). A mindful approach to stammering. In C. Cheasman, R. Everard, & S. Simpson (Eds.), Stammering therapy from the inside (pp. 227–265). J&R Press.
Christensen, R. H. B. (2019). Ordinal regression models for ordinal data (R package version 2019.12-10). https://cran.r-project.org/package=ordinal
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Erlbaum.
Constantino, C. D., Manning, W. H., & Nordstrom, S. N. (2017). Rethinking covert stuttering. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 53, 26–40.
Conture, E. G., Kelly, E. M., & Walden, T. A. (2013). Temperament, speech and language: An overview. Journal of Communication Disorders, 46(2), 125–142.
Conture, E. G., & Walden, T. A. (2012). Dual diathesis-stressor model of stuttering. Theoretical Issues of Fluency Disorders, 41, 94–127.
Cook, R. D. (1979). Influential observations in linear regression. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 74(365), 169–174.
Curtin, J. (2018). lmSupport: Support for linear models (R package version 2.9.12). https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=lmSupport
Danisman, Ş., Esra Dereli, I., Zeynep Akın, D., & Yaya, D. (2016). Examining the psychometric properties of the Emotional Regulation Checklist in 4- and 5-year-old preschoolers. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 14(3), 534–556.
Demaree, H. A., Schmeichel, B. J., Robinson, J. L., Pu, J., Everhart, D. E., & Berntson, G. G. (2006). Up- and down-regulating facial disgust: Affective, vagal, sympathetic, and respiratory consequences. Biological Psychology, 71(1), 90–99.
De Nil, L. F., & Brutten, G. J. (1991). Speech-associated attitudes of stuttering and nonstuttering children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 34(1), 60–66.
de Sonneville-Koedoot, C., Stolk, E. A., Raat, H., Bouwmans-Frijters, C., & Franken, M. C. (2014). Health-related quality of life of preschool children who stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 42(1), 1–12.
Douglass, J. E., Schwab, M., & Alvarado, J. (2018). Covert stuttering: Investigation of the paradigm shift from covertly stuttering to overtly stuttering. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 27(3S), 1235–1243.
Dowle, M., & Srinivasan, A. (2021). data.table: Extension of `data.frame` (R package version 1.14.0.).
Eggers, K., De Nil, L. F., & Van den Bergh, B. R. H. (2010). Temperament dimensions in stuttering and typically developing children. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 35(4), 355–372.
Eggers, K., Millard, S., & Kelman, E. (2021). Temperament and the impact of stuttering in children aged 8–14 years. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 64(2), 417–432.
Emerick, L. L. (1988). Counseling adults who stutter: A cognitive approach. Seminars in Speech and Language, 9(3), 257–267.
Farb, N., Anderson, A., Irving, J. A., & Segal, Z. (2014). Mindfulness interventions and emotion regulation. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 548–567). Guilford.
Feinberg, M., Willer, R., Antonenko, O., & John, O. P. (2012). Liberating reason from the passions: Overriding intuitionist moral judgments through emotion reappraisal. Psychological Science, 23(7), 788–795.
Fletcher, T. (2012). Quantitative Psychology Tools (R package version 1.5.).
Fox, J., & Weisberg, S. (2019). An {R} companion to applied regression (3rd ed.). Sage. https://socialsciences.mcmaster.ca/jfox/Books/Companion/
Garnier, S., Ross, N., Rudis, R., Camargo, A. P., Sciaini, M., & Scherer, C. (2021). viridis—Colorblind-friendly color maps for R (R package version 0.6.0.).
Goodman, L. (1961). Snowball sampling. The Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 32(1), 148–170.
Gross, J. J. (1998a). Antecedent- and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 224–237.
Gross, J. J. (1998b). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299.
Gross, J. J. (2002). Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences. Psychophysiology, 39(3), 281–291.
Gross, J. J. (2014a). Emotional regulation: Conceptual and empirical foundations. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (2nd ed., pp. 3–20). Guilford.
Gross, J. J. (Ed.). (2014b). Handbook of emotion regulation (2nd ed.). Guilford.
Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26.
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362.
Gross, J. J., & Levenson, R. W. (1993). Emotional suppression: Physiology, self-report, and expressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(6), 970–986.
Gross, J. J., & Levenson, R. W. (1997). Hiding feelings: The acute effects of inhibiting negative and positive emotion. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106(1), 95–103.
Gross, J. J., & Thompson, R. A. (2007). Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (1st ed., pp. 3–24). Guilford.
Gross, J. T., & Cassidy, J. (2019). Expressive suppression of negative emotions in children and adolescents: Theory, data, and a guide for future research. Developmental Psychology, 55(9), 1938–1950.
Gullone, E., & Taffe, J. (2012). The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (ERQ-CA): A psychometric evaluation. Psychological Assessment, 24(2), 409–417.
Gupta, S. K., Yashodhara, G. Y., & Vasudha, H. H. (2016). Cognitive behavior therapy and mindfulness training in the treatment of adults who stutter. The International Journal of Indian Psychology, 3(3), 78–87.
Gyurak, A., & Etkin, A. (2014). A neurobiological model of implicit and explicit emotion regulation. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (2nd ed., pp. 76–92). Guilford.
Gyurak, A., Gross, J. J., & Etkin, A. (2011). Explicit and implicit emotion regulation: A dual-process framework. Cognition and Emotion, 25(3), 400–412.
Harley, J. (2018). The role of attention in therapy for children and adolescents who stutter: Cognitive behavioral therapy and mindfulness-based interventions. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 27(3S), 1139–1151.
Harris, C. R. (2001). Cardiovascular responses of embarrassment and effects of emotional suppression in a social setting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(5), 886–897.
Hebbali, A. (2020). olsrr: Tools for building OLS regression models (R package).
Helgadóttir, F. D., Menzies, R. G., Onslow, M., Packman, A., & O'Brian, S. (2014). A standalone Internet cognitive behavior therapy treatment for social anxiety in adults who stutter: CBTpsych. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 41, 47–54.
Jackson, E. S., Yaruss, J. S., Quesal, R., Terranova, V., & Whalen, D. H. (2015). Responses of adults who stutter to the anticipation of stuttering. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 45, 38–51.
Johnson, K. A., Walden, T. A., Conture, E. G., & Karrass, J. (2010). Spontaneous regulation of emotions in preschool children who stutter: Preliminary findings. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 53(6), 1478–1495.
Jones, R. M., Buhr, A. P., Conture, E. G., Tumanova, V., Walden, T. A., & Porges, S. W. (2014). Autonomic nervous system activity of preschool-age children who stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 41, 12–31.
Karrass, J., Walden, T. A., Conture, E. G., Graham, C. G., Arnold, H. S., Hartfield, K. N., & Schwenk, K. A. (2006). Relation of emotional reactivity and regulation to childhood stuttering. Journal of Communication Disorders, 39(6), 402–423.
Kassambara, A. (2020). ggpubr: “ggplot2” based publication ready plots (R package version 0.3.0). https://cran.r-project.org/package=ggpubr
Kefalianos, E., Onslow, M., Ukoumunne, O. C., Block, S., & Reilly, S. (2014). Stuttering, temperament, and anxiety: Data from a community cohort ages 2–4 years. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 57(4), 1314–1322.
Kefalianos, E., Onslow, M., Ukoumunne, O. C., Block, S., & Reilly, S. (2017). Temperament and early stuttering development: Cross-sectional findings from a community cohort. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 60(4), 772–784.
Kelman, E., & Wheeler, S. (2015). Cognitive behaviour therapy with children who stutter. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 193, 165–174.
Kennedy, P. (2003). A guide to econometrics (5th ed.). MIT Press.
Kim, S. H., & Hamann, S. (2012). The effect of cognitive reappraisal on physiological reactivity and emotional memory. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 83(3), 348–356.
Klimesch, W., Sauseng, P., & Hanslmayr, S. (2007). EEG alpha oscillations: The inhibition-timing hypothesis. Brain Research Reviews, 53(1), 63–88.
Koenraads, S. P. C., Jansen, P. W., Jan Baatenburg de Jong, R., van Der Schroeff, M. P., & Franken, M.-C. (2021). Bidirectional associations of childhood stuttering with behavior and temperament. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 64(12), 4563–4579.
Kraft, S. J., Ambrose, N., & Chon, H. (2014). Temperament and environmental contributions to stuttering severity in children: The role of effortful control. Seminars in Speech and Language, 35(2), 80–94.
Kraft, S. J., Lowther, E., & Beilby, J. M. (2018). Severity in children: Replication study. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 28(1), 14–28.
Laceulle, O. M., Nederhof, E., Karreman, A., Ormel, J., & van Aken, M. A. G. (2012). Stressful events and temperament change during early and middle adolescence: The TRAILS study. European Journal of Personality, 26(3), 276–284.
Langevin, M., Packman, A., & Onslow, M. (2010). Parent perceptions of the impact of stuttering on their preschoolers and themselves. Journal of Communication Disorders, 43(5), 407–423.
Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Cognition and motivation in emotion. American Psychologist, 46(4), 352–367.
Lazarus, R. S., & Alfert, E. (1964). Short-circuiting of threat by experimentally altering cognitive appraisal. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 69(2), 195–205.
Lieberman, M. D., Inagaki, T. K., Tabibnia, G., & Crockett, M. J. (2011). Subjective responses to emotional stimuli during labeling, reappraisal, and distraction. Emotion, 11(3), 468–480.
Livingstone, K. M., & Isaacowitz, D. M. (2015). Situation selection and modification for emotion regulation in younger and older adults. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6(8), 904–910.
Mazerolle, M. (2020). AICcmodavg: Model selection and multimodel inference based on (Q)AIC(c) (R package version 2.3-1). https://cran.r-project.org/package=AICcmodavg
McDevitt, S. C., & Carey, W. B. (1978). The measurement of temperament in 3–7 year old children. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 19(3), 245–253.
Menzies, R. G., Onslow, M., Packman, A., & O'Brian, S. (2009). Cognitive behavior therapy for adults who stutter: A tutorial for speech-language pathologists. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 34(3), 187–200.
Moon, K. W. (2020). Make Interactive “ggplot2”. Extension to “ggplot2” and ‘ggiraph (R package version 0.3.0.). https://github.com/cardiomoon/ggiraphExtra
Moore, S. A., Zoellner, L. A., & Mollenholt, N. (2008). Are expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal associated with stress-related symptoms? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46(9), 993–1000.
Murphy, W. P. (1999). A preliminary look at shame, guilt, and stuttering. In N. Bernstein-Ratner & C. Healy (Eds.), Stuttering research and practice: Bridging the gap (pp. 131–143). Erlbaum.
Murphy, W. P., Quesal, R., & Gulker, H. (2007). Covert stuttering. SIG 4 Perspectives on Fluency and Fluency Disorders, 17(2), 4–9.
Murphy, W. P., Yaruss, J. S., & Quesal, R. W. (2007). Enhancing treatment for school-age children who stutter. II. Reducing bullying through role-playing and self-disclosure. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 32(2), 139–162.
Neter, J., Wasserman, W., & Kutner, M. H. (1985). Applied linear statistical models (2nd ed.). Richard D. Irwin.
Newman, D. A. (2014). Missing data. Organizational Research Methods, 17(4), 372–411.
Nezlek, J. B., & Kuppens, P. (2008). Regulating positive and negative emotions in daily life. Journal of Personality, 76(3), 561–580.
Palasik, S., & Hannan, J. (2013). The clinical applications of acceptance and commitment therapy with clients who stutter. SIG 4 Perspectives on Fluency and Fluency Disorders, 23(2), 54–69.
Perkins, W. H. (1990). What is stuttering? Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 55(3), 370–382.
Plexico, L. W., & Sandage, M. J. (2011). A mindful approach to stuttering intervention. SIG 4 Perspectives on Fluency and Fluency Disorders, 21(2), 43–49.
Qualtrics. (2021). Qualtrics (February, 2019). https://www.qualtrics.com/
Ray, R. D., McRae, K., Ochsner, K. N., & Gross, J. J. (2010). Cognitive reappraisal of negative affect: Converging evidence from EMG and self-report. Emotion, 10(4), 587–592.
Reilly, S., Onslow, M., Packman, A., Cini, E., Conway, L., Ukoumunne, O. C., Bavin, E. L., Prior, M., Eadie, P., Block, S., & Wake, M. (2013). Natural history of stuttering to 4 years of age: A prospective community-based study. Pediatrics, 132(3), 460–467.
Reis, A. H., De Oliveira, S. E. S., Bandeira, D. R., Andrade, N. C., Abreu, N., & Sperb, T. M. (2016). Emotion Regulation Checklist (ERC): Preliminary studies of cross-cultural adaptation and validation for use in Brazil. Temas em Psicologia, 24(1), 97–116.
Revelle, W. (2019). psych: Psychological, psychometric, and personality research (1.9.12.). Northwestern University. https://cran.r-project.org/package=psych
Richards, J. M., & Gross, J. J. (2000). Emotion regulation and memory: The cognitive costs of keeping one's cool. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(3), 410–424.
Riediger, M., Wrzus, C., & Wagner, G. G. (2014). Happiness is pleasant, or is it? Implicit representations of affect valence are associated with contrahedonic motivation and mixed affect in daily life. Emotion, 14(5), 950–961.
Rothbart, M. K. (2007). Temperament, development, and personality. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(4), 207–212.
Rothbart, M. K. (2011). Becoming who we are: Temperament and personality in development. Guilford.
Rothbart, M. K., & Derryberry, D. (1981). Development of individual differences in temperament. In M. E. Lamb & A. Brown (Eds.), Advances in developmental psychopathology (pp. 37–86). Erlbaum.
Rothbart, M. K., & Rueda, M. R. (2005). The development of effortful control. In U. Mayr, E. Awh, & S. Keele (Eds.), Developing individuality in the human brain: A tribute to Michael I. Posner (pp. 167–188). American Psychiatric Association.
Rothbart, M. K., Sheese, B. E., & Posner, M. I. (2014). Temperament and emotional regulation. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (2nd ed., pp. 305–320). Guilford.
Rueda, M. R. (2012). Effortful control. In M. Zentner & R. L. Shiner (Eds.), Handbook of temperament (pp. 145–167).
Sala, M. N., Pons, F., & Molina, P. (2014). Emotion regulation strategies in preschool children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 32(4), 440–453.
Schwartz, D., & Proctor, L. J. (2000). Community violence exposure and children's social adjustment in the school peer group: The mediating roles of emotion regulation and social cognition. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(4), 670–683.
Sheppes, G. (2014). Emotion regulation choice: Theory and findings. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (2nd ed., pp. 126–139). Guilford.
Sheppes, G., Catran, E., & Meiran, N. (2009). Reappraisal (but not distraction) is going to make you sweat: Physiological evidence for self-control effort. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 71(2), 91–96.
Sheppes, G., & Meiran, N. (2007). Better late than never? On the dynamics of online regulation of sadness using distraction and cognitive reappraisal. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(11), 1518–1532.
Sheppes, G., & Meiran, N. (2008). Divergent cognitive costs for online forms of reappraisal and distraction. Emotion, 8(6), 870–874.
Sheppes, G., Scheibe, S., Suri, G., Radu, P., Blechert, J., & Gross, J. J. (2014). Emotion regulation choice: A conceptual framework and supporting evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(1), 163–181.
Shields, A., & Cicchetti, D. (1997). Emotion regulation among school-age children: The development and validation of a new criterion Q-sort scale. Developmental Psychology, 33(6), 906–916.
Shiota, M. N., & Levenson, R. W. (2012). Turn down the volume or change the channel? Emotional effects of detached versus positive reappraisal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103(3), 416–429.
Silvers, J. A. (2020). Extinction learning and cognitive reappraisal: Windows into the neurodevelopment of emotion regulation. Child Development Perspectives, 14(3), 178–184.
Stemmler, G. (1997). Selective activation of traits: Boundary conditions for the activation of anger. Personality and Individual Differences, 22(2), 213–233.
Stepper, S., & Strack, F. (1993). Proprioceptive determinants of emotional and nonemotional feelings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(2), 211–220.
Stroud, L. R., Foster, E., Papandonatos, G. D., Handwerger, K., Granger, D. A., Kivlighan, K. T., & Niaura, R. (2009). Stress response and the adolescent transition: Performance versus peer rejection stressors. Development and Psychopathology, 21(1), 47–68.
Szasz, P. L., Szentagotai, A., & Hofmann, S. G. (2011). The effect of emotion regulation strategies on anger. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49(2), 114–119.
Tichenor, S. E., Herring, C., & Yaruss, J. S. (2022). Understanding the speaker's experience of stuttering can improve stuttering therapy. Topics in Language Disorders, 42(1), 57–75.
Tichenor, S. E., Johnson, C. A., & Yaruss, J. S. (2021). A preliminary investigation of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder characteristics in adults who stutter. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 64(3), 839–853.
Tichenor, S. E., Leslie, P., Shaiman, S., & Yaruss, J. S. (2017). Speaker and observer perceptions of physical tension during stuttering. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 69(4), 180–189.
Tichenor, S. E., & Yaruss, J. S. (2018). A phenomenological analysis of the experience of stuttering. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 27(3S), 1180–1194.
Tichenor, S. E., & Yaruss, J. S. (2019a). Group experiences and individual differences in stuttering. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 62(12), 4335–4350.
Tichenor, S. E., & Yaruss, J. S. (2019b). Stuttering as defined by adults who stutter. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 62(12), 4356–4369.
Tichenor, S. E., & Yaruss, J. S. (2020a). Recovery and relapse: Perspectives from adults who stutter. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 63(7), 2162–2176.
Tichenor, S. E., & Yaruss, J. S. (2020b). Repetitive negative thinking, temperament, and adverse impact in adults who stutter. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 29(1), 201–215.
Tichenor, S. E., & Yaruss, J. S. (2020c). Variability of stuttering: Behavior and impact. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 30(1), 75–88.
Troy, A. S., & Mauss, I. B. (2011). Resilience in the face of stress: Emotional regulation ability as a protective factor. In S. Southwick, B. Litz, D. Charney, & M. Friedman (Eds.), Resiliency and mental health (pp. 30–44). Cambridge University Press.
Tumanova, V., Woods, C., & Wang, Q. (2020). Effects of physiological arousal on speech motor control and speech motor practice in preschool-age children who do and do not stutter. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 63(10), 3364–3379.
Van Beveren, M. L., McIntosh, K., Vandevivere, E., Wante, L., Vandeweghe, L., Van Durme, K., Vandewalle, J., Verbeken, S., & Braet, C. (2016). Associations between temperament, emotion regulation, and depression in youth: The role of positive temperament. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(6), 1954–1968.
Van den Bergh, B. R. H., & Ackx, M. (2003). Een Nederlandse versie van Rothbarts ‘Children's Behavior Questionnaire.’ Kind en Adolescent, 24(2), 53–57.
Van Riper, C. (1973). The treatment of stuttering. Prentice-Hall.
Van Riper, C. (1982). The nature of stuttering. Prentice-Hall.
Vanryckeghem, M., & Brutten, G. J. (1997). The speech-associated attitude of children who do and do not stutter and the differential effect of age. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 6(4), 67–73.
Vanryckeghem, M., Brutten, G. J., & Hernandez, L. M. (2005). A comparative investigation of the speech-associated attitude of preschool and kindergarten children who do and do not stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 30(4), 307–318.
Vijayakumar, N., Whittle, S., Dennison, M., Yücel, M., Simmons, J., & Allen, N. B. (2014). Development of temperamental effortful control mediates the relationship between maturation of the prefrontal cortex and psychopathology during adolescence: A 4-year longitudinal study. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 9, 30–43.
Walsh, B., Smith, A., Christ, S. L., & Weber, C. (2019). Sympathetic nervous system activity in preschoolers who stutter. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 13(October), 1–16.
Walsh, B., & Usler, E. (2019). Physiological correlates of fluent and stuttered speech production in preschool children who stutter. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 62(12), 4309–4323.
Webb, T. L., Lindquist, K. A., Jones, K., Avishai, A., & Sheeran, P. (2018). Situation selection is a particularly effective emotion regulation strategy for people who need help regulating their emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 32(2), 231–248.
White, I. R., & Carlin, J. B. (2010). Bias and efficiency of multiple imputation compared with complete-case analysis for missing covariate values. Statistics in Medicine, 29(28), 2920–2931.
Wickham, H. (2016). ggplot2: Elegant graphics for data analysis. Springer-Verlag. https://ggplot2.tidyverse.org,
Wickham, H., Averick, M., Bryan, J., Chang, W., McGowan, L., François, R., Grolemund, G., Hayes, A., Henry, L., Hester, J., Kuhn, M., Pedersen, T., Miller, E., Bache, S., Müller, K., Ooms, J., Robinson, D., Seidel, D., Spinu, V., … Yutani, H. (2019). Welcome to the Tidyverse. The Journal of Open Source Software, 4(43), 1686.
Williams, R. (2006). Generalized ordered logit/partial proportional odds models for ordinal dependent variables. The Stata Journal, 6(1), 58–82.
Williams, R. (2016). Understanding and interpreting generalized ordered logit models. Journal of Mathematical Sociology, 40(1), 7–20.
Williams, S., Moore, K., Crossman, A. M., & Talwar, V. (2016). The role of executive functions and theory of mind in children's prosocial lie-telling. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 141, 256–266.
World Health Organization. (2001). The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF).
Xie, Y. (2021). knitr: A general-purpose package for dynamic report generation in R (R package version 1.32).
Yaruss, J. S., & Quesal, R. W. (2006). Overall Assessment of the Speaker's Experience of Stuttering (OASES): Documenting multiple outcomes in stuttering treatment. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 31(2), 90–115.
Yaruss, J. S., & Quesal, R. (2016). Overall Assessment of the Speaker's Experience of Stuttering (OASES). Stuttering Therapy Resources.
Yaruss, J. S., Quesal, R. W., Reeves, L., Molt, L. F., Kluetz, B., Caruso, A. J., McClure, J. A., & Lewis, F. (2002). Speech treatment and support group experiences of people who participate in the National Stuttering Association. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 27(2), 115–134.
Yaruss, J. S., & Yaruss, V. R. (2021). Overall Assessment of the Speaker's Experience of Stuttering—Early childhood and family response forms. Stuttering Therapy Resources. In Development.
Yuan, J., Liu, Y., Ding, N., & Yang, J. (2014). The regulation of induced depression during a frustrating situation: Benefits of expressive suppression in Chinese individuals. PLOS ONE, 9(5), Article e97420.
Zeileis, A., & Hothorn, T. (2002). Diagnostic checking in regression relationships. R News, 2(3), 7–10.
Zengin-Bolatkale, H., Conture, E. G., & Walden, T. A. (2015). Sympathetic arousal of young children who stutter during a stressful picture naming task. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 46(2015), 24–40.
Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., & Skinner, E. A. (2011). Review: The development of coping across childhood and adolescence: An integrative review and critique of research. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 35(1), 1–17.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research
Volume 65 • Number 7 • July 2022
Pages: 2412-2430
PubMed: 35738025
Copyright
Copyright © 2022 American Speech-Language-Hearing Association.
History
- Received: Aug 30, 2021
- Revised: Dec 21, 2021
- Accepted: Mar 21, 2022
- Published online: Jun 23, 2022
- Published in issue: Jul 18, 2022
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Article Metrics
View all metricsCitations
Download article citation data for:
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
For more information or tips please see 'Downloading to a citation manager' in the Help menu.
Citing Literature
- Lisa A. Giuffre, Kathleen Scaler Scott, Life Impact of Cluttering: The Adult Perspective, American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 10.1044/2024_AJSLP-24-00262, 34, 2, (661-673), (2025).
- Christopher Dominick Constantino, Stuttering as an act of love, Journal of Fluency Disorders, 10.1016/j.jfludis.2025.106104, 83, (106104), (2025).
- Dalia Elleuch, The Role of Stress Management in the Acquisition of English as a Foreign Language for Children with ADHD: A Longitudinal Case Study, Heliyon, 10.1016/j.heliyon.2025.e43060, (e43060), (2025).
- Chelsea A. Johnson, Katelyn L. Gerwin, Seth E. Tichenor, Michael P. Boyle, Bridget Walsh, Evaluating Stuttering Self-Stigma and Its Relationship to Adverse Impact in Children and Adolescents With the Child Stuttering Self-Stigma Scale, Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 10.1044/2024_JSLHR-24-00069, 67, 9, (2920-2934), (2024).
- Molly Jacobs, Hope Gerlach-Houck, Patrick Briley, Differential Impacts of Anticipated Success on Employment Outcomes Among Adults Who Stutter, American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 10.1044/2024_AJSLP-24-00202, 34, 1, (246-260), (2024).
- Kurt Eggers, Iris Heselmans, Delay frustration in children who do and do not stutter: A preliminary study, Journal of Communication Disorders, 10.1016/j.jcomdis.2023.106403, 107, (106403), (2024).
- Seth E. Tichenor, Katelyn L. Gerwin, Bridget Walsh, Repetitive Negative Thinking in Adolescents Who Stutter, Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 10.1044/2023_JSLHR-23-00147, 66, 9, (3290-3306), (2023).
- Bridget M. Walsh, Hannah Grobbel, Sharon L. Christ, Seth E. Tichenor, Katelyn L. Gerwin, Exploring the Relationship Between Resilience and the Adverse Impact of Stuttering in Children, Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 10.1044/2023_JSLHR-23-00012, 66, 7, (2278-2295), (2023).
- Seth E. Tichenor, Scott Palasik, J. Scott Yaruss, Understanding the Broader Impact of Stuttering: Suicidal Ideation, American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 10.1044/2023_AJSLP-23-00007, 32, 5, (2087-2110), (2023).
- Naomi Eichorn, Jessica Hall, Klara Marton, Complex working memory in adults with and without stuttering disorders: Performance patterns and predictive relationships, Journal of Fluency Disorders, 10.1016/j.jfludis.2023.105993, 77, (105993), (2023).
View Options
Sign In Options
ASHA member? If so, log in with your ASHA website credentials for full access.
Member Login